Risk factors for long COVID in children and adolescents: a systematic review and meta-analysis.
children and adolescents
COVID-19
long COVID
increased risk
Abstract
The long-term sequelae of COVID-19 in children and adolescents remain poorly understood and characterized. This systematic review and meta-analysis sought to summarize the risk factors for long COVID in the pediatric population. We searched six databases from January 2020 to May 2023 for observational studies reporting on risk factors for long COVID or persistent symptoms those were present 12 or more weeks post-infection using multivariable regression analyses. Trial registries, reference lists of included studies, and preprint servers were hand-searched for relevant studies. Random-effects meta-analyses were conducted to pool odds ratios for each risk factor. Individual study risk of bias was rated using QUIPS, and the GRADE framework was used to assess the certainty of evidence for each unique factor. Sixteen observational studies (N = 46,262) were included, and 19 risk factors were amenable to meta-analysis. With moderate certainty in the evidence, age (per 2-year increase), allergic rhinitis, obesity, previous respiratory diseases, hospitalization, severe acute COVID-19, and symptomatic acute COVID-19 are probably associated with an increased risk of long COVID. Female sex, asthma, comorbidity, and heart diseases may be associated with an increased risk of long COVID, and Asian and Black races may be associated with a decreased risk of long COVID. We did not observe any credible subgroup effects for any risk factor. The current body of literature presents several compelling risk factors for the development of long COVID in the pediatric population. Further research is necessary to elucidate the pathophysiology of long COVID.